Advertisement
The 10 Best CBD Oils Of 2024, Plus Dosage, Benefits, And More
Are you on the hunt for the best CBD oils to enhance your daily routine? The cannabidiol (CBD) market is experiencing unprecedented growth due to its potential benefits, leaving potential buyers overwhelmed with options.
Scouring the internet for the best CBD oils to incorporate into your daily routine is difficult enough when you consider the science of it all; add hundreds of potential options to the mix and finding the perfect formula becomes that much more difficult.
Ahead, we delve into the world of CBD oils, offering insights into what to look for when purchasing. Whether you're a novice or a seasoned user, discover essential tips to help you find the best CBD oils suited to your needs.
- Best organic: Joy Organics Organic Broad Spectrum CBD Tincture
- Best-tasting: Charlotte's Web CBD Oil
- Best CBD isolate: MEDTERRA Isolate Hemp Oil
- Best broad-spectrum: beam The One
- Best full-spectrum: FABCBD CBD Oil
- Best subscription: CBDistillery Full Spectrum CBD Oil Tincture
- Best affordable: NuLeaf Full Spectrum CBD Oil
- Best vegan: Onyx + Rose Full Bloom CBD Oil
- Best high-dose: Extract Labs Daily Support Hemp Tincture
- Best for beginners: Sunday Scaries CBD Oil
Joy Organics unflavored CBD oil is made with just two ingredients: organic extra-virgin olive oil and organic phytocannabinoid-rich hemp extract. That's it! Plus, this product has earned the USDA-certified organic distinction.
This tincture is a neutral formula users love adding to smoothies, coffee, or baked goods or ingesting the formula as is. Reviewers also note the neutral flavor tastes pleasant, while a handful note they prefer consuming their daily dose before bed, as many find it promotes relaxation, leading to restful sleep.*
Pros
Pros
- USDA-certified organic product
- Available in four strength options
- Vegan-friendly
Cons
Cons
- Some users don't love taste
Charlotte's Web was this writer's introduction to hemp CBD oil, and the experience was more than satisfactory. The brand has a family origin story, founded by the seven Stanley Brothers (Joel, Jesse, Jared, Josh, Jordan, Jon, and Austin), who banded together to create a unique strain, or cultivar, of U.S.-grown hemp.
The brand's full-spectrum CBD oil comes in four varieties: Mint Chocolate (a personal favorite that tastes amazing in chocolate protein smoothies), Lemon Twist, Orange Blossom, and Olive Oil. It only contains hemp, natural flavoring, and coconut oil plus eitherorganic sunflower oil or olive oil as the carrier ingredient.
Pros
Pros
- Made with organic ingredients
- Available in four flavors and two sizes
- U.S.-grown hemp
Cons
Cons
- Pricey
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
MEDTERRA is one of those brands CBD users return to over and over again, and it's no surprise why. The brand's customer service is stellar—this writer can vouch for its attentive virtual chat staff—and its hemp is organically grown and non-GMO. Not only are products made in the U.S., but they're also widely considered easy to use. The brand's Isolate Hemp Oil is formulated with two ingredients: Active hemp extract and organic coconut-derived MCT oil is available in four strengths, ranging from 500 mg to 6,000 mg.
Pros
Pros
- Comes highly rated by users
- Available in 4 strengths
Cons
Cons
- Users have mixed reviews about the taste
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
You might recognize beam from its strong social media presence (that's where this writer was introduced to the brand), but we promise there's more to this hemp CBD oil than its photogenic tincture bottle. We love that the dropper comes embossed with serving measurements, ensuring users have complete control over their dosage. Plus, the broad-spectrum formula itself is made with additional organic ingredients, like hemp seed and grape oil, so you can feel good about what you're ingesting.
Pros
Pros
- Versatile
- Available in multiple
- No coconut (i.e., for those with tree nut allergy concerns)
Cons
Cons
- Pricey
- Reviewers have mixed feelings about the taste
"I started adding beam’s The One peppermint oil to my coffee or matcha three years ago. I love that it helps support a calmer mood on hectic work days, so I can stay focused. Plus, it makes my decaf latte taste like a seasonal beverage, without the added syrups or sugar.*” — Carleigh Ferrante, commerce editor
Don't scroll past this hemp CBD oil without a glance due to its gentle potency. While low, 5 mg of hemp CBD makes this product great for beginners or veteran users who value precision. With this tincture, you can easily calculate how much of the herb you're consuming, so adjusting and personalizing your dosage is simple.
But beyond its serving size, FABCBD's CBD Oil comes in a whopping five flavors—natural, citrus, mint, vanilla, and berry—as well as four strengths, ranging from 300 mg to 2,400 mg of hemp CBD per bottle. The product's ingredients are sourced from Colorado's finest organic hemp plant and contain naturally occurring terpenes and other beneficial cannabinoids (including less than the required legal limit of 0.3% THC for U.S. hemp). Additional ingredients include coconut oil, sunflower seed oil, and natural flavors.
Pros
Pros
- Sourced from organic U.S. hemp
- Available in multiple flavors and strengths
- Comes highly recommended by users
Cons
Cons
- Only available online
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
With over 3,400 rave reviews and an average of 4.5 out of a possible 5-star rating, it's clear why subscribers keep coming back to this formula. Per customer feedback, CBDistillery products are effective and fairly priced, and the brand itself offers excellent customer service to anyone who needs assistance.
What stood out to us the most about this hemp CBD company was its impressive level of transparency; the product's web page informs shoppers that CBDistillery's products are U.S. Hemp Authority Certified, third-party tested, free from GMOs, and farmed via natural practices. The brand also makes lab results easily accessible on its website. All you have to do is scan the QR code on your product, and the results will pop up for your review.
The Full-Spectrum CBD Oil Tincture is the brand's most popular hemp CBD oil to date, and it contains limited ingredients. It's made with full-spectrum hemp (natural terpenes are present in the formula) and MCT coconut oil as the carrier. What's more, shoppers are guaranteed a 60-day satisfaction period. If you are not satisfied with the product and/or its results within 60 days, you can return your tincture, and your purchase will be refunded.
Pros
Pros
- Highly rated by users
- Made with MCT oil
- U.S. Hemp, non-GMO & vegan certified
Cons
Cons
- Only sold online
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
NuLeaf's Full Spectrum CBD Oil has received a jaw-droppingly impressive 24,000+ reviews on the brand's website alone, with an average 4.9 out of a possible 5-star rating. One might assume a product with that level of praise would be costly, but at only $19 for 300 mg, this beloved formula is both affordable and highly recommended by users. Bang for your buck, indeed.
The unflavored formula contains only two ingredients: full-spectrum hemp extract and organic virgin hemp seed oil.
It's available in five strengths, ranging from 300 mg to 6,000 mg of hemp CBD, with the smallest bottle yielding just 10 servings (an excellent option for new users).
Pros
Pros
- Highly rated with thousands of reviews
- Available in five strengths
Cons
Cons
- The suggested dosage is confusing: 30 mg (10 drops), but split between two doses
True, Onyx + Rose products are pricier than others on this list, but the age-old saying "you get what you pay for" rings true here. The brand's Full Bloom CBD Oil is made with organically grown American hemp, as well as a blend of organic and natural ingredients, including MCT oil, organic hemp seed oil, organic peppermint essential oil, and stevia leaf extract, as well as natural flavors (for the Very Berry variety). Plus, the brand has an impressive following (over 96k fans on Instagram alone), a testament to its loyal fanbase.
Full Bloom CBD Oil comes in two flavors: Very Berry and Full Bloom Mint. The Very Berry is beloved, with users raving it "tastes better than other CBD products and brands that we've tried!" Plus, fans of the brands also know its dropper is elite and so easy to use, making proper dosage a breeze. But if you're not a fan, no worries. You have 30 days upon receipt to return and get your money back.
Because the brand uses clear glass (instead of amber or another tinted glass), be sure to store your hemp CBD oil away from light. Phytocannabinoids and other plant bioactives are sensitive to light, and it can cause them to degrade and thus, lose their potency and intended use.
Pros
Pros
- Made from 100% organically grown American hemp
- Gluten-free, cruelty-free & vegan-friendly
- Comes in two flavors
Cons
Cons
- Has trace amounts of THC (if that's not your thing)
- Clear packaging allows faster degradation
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
Extract Labs goes above and beyond to bring its customers the highest quality hemp CBD, utilizing both in-house lab capabilities, as well as third-party testing. What's more, the brand's products are extracted, manufactured, and packaged in the same place.
Dubbed Extract's "flagship formula," the Daily Support Hemp Tincture is favored by brand loyalists. It's made from organic ingredients (including organic coconut oil and natural flavors) and is certifiably non-GMO. The oil is flavor-free, though some reviewers claim they experience an earthy, hemp-like aftertaste.
Pros
Pros
- In control of every step of products' production
- Highly recommended by users
- USDA-certified organic
- American-grown hemp
Cons
Cons
- Plastic packaging
- Users note a hemp-like aftertaste
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
Sunday Scaries CBD Oil is this writer's personal favorite. It's a broad-spectrum formula enhanced with nutrients like vitamin D (which science shows can improve your mood) and vitamin B12, as well as coconut oil (as a carrier oil).* Not only is the hemp USA-grown, but the tincture is also Kosher-certified.
It's worth noting that while this hemp CBD oil doesn't come in a variety of flavors, it packs a fruit punch taste (from natural flavors and organic stevia) reminiscent of childhood.
Pros
Pros
- Highly rated by customers of the brand
- Available for purchase in packs of two & three bottles
Cons
Cons
- No strength options
- Mixed reviews on flavor
- Not for those with tree nut allergies (coconut)
Comparing the best CBD oils
Product | CBD type | Cost | Cost per mg of CBD | Potency | Servings | Organic hemp | Subscription option |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Joy Organics Broad Spectrum CBD Oil Tincture | Broad-spectrum | From $45 | From $0.10 | Gentle (15mg CBD per serving); Moderate (30mg); Strong (45mg or 75mg) | 30 | Yes | Yes |
Charlotte’s Web CBD Oil | Full-spectrum | From $119 | From $0.06 | Strong (60mg CBD per serving) | 30 | Yes | Yes |
MEDTERRA Isolate Hemp Oil | Isolate | From $40 | From $0.08 | Gentle (16mg CBD per serving); Moderate (33mg); Strong (100mg) | 30 | No | Yes |
beam The One | Broad-spectrum | From $95 | From $0.19 | Gentle (16mg CBD per serving); Moderate (33mg); Strong (100mg) | 30 | No | Yes |
FABCBD CBD Oil | Full-Spectrum | From $40 | From $0.13 | Gentle (5mg CBD per serving); Moderate (20mg); Strong (80mg) | 60 | Yes | Yes |
CBDistillery Full Spectrum CBD Oil | Full-Spectrum | $60 | $0.06 | Moderate (33mg CBD per serving) | 30 | No | Yes |
NuLeaf Full Spectrum CBD Oil | Full-Spectrum | From $20 | From $0.06 | Moderate (30mg CBD per serving) | 10 or 30 | Yes | Yes |
Onyx + Rose Full Bloom CBD Oil | Full-Spectrum | $84 | $0.08 | Gentle (17mg CBD per serving) | 60 | Yes | Yes |
Extract Labs Daily Support Hemp Tincture | Full-Spectrum | From $51 | From $0.05 | Moderate (33mg CBD per serving) or Strong (66mg CBD per serving) | 30 | Yes | Yes |
Sunday Scaries CBD Oil | Broad-spectrum | From $40 | From $0.10 | Gentle (10mg CBD per serving) | 50 | No | Yes |
What is CBD oil?
CBD stands for cannabidiol, and it's one of the hundreds of active compounds in the Cannabis sativa hemp plant. Hemp CBD oil is made from a combination of hemp extract and one or two carrier oils, like MCT coconut oil or hemp seed oil, that help the body better absorb the cannabinoid compounds (as these plant bioactives are fat-soluble).
There are three types of hemp extracts featured in hemp CBD oil products: full-spectrum, broad-spectrum, or a CBD isolate. As the name suggests, CBD isolate only contains cannabidiol, while broad-spectrum hemp contains some additional compounds found in the cannabis plant.
Full-spectrum hemp (sometimes referred to as "whole full plant" CBD) contains multiple cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and other plant-based compounds, including trace amounts of tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC. (FYI, hemp CBD contains less than 0.3% THC by dry weight, per the legal definition in the U.S.)
As far as which is the most effective type of hemp CBD oil, it comes down to personal needs and preference—though full-spectrum CBD is often considered the gold standard due to the entourage effect.
Along with including different types of hemp, CBD formulas also come in different strengths, often categorized as gentle, moderate, or strong.
According to Timothy Byars, director of Cannabis Programs at the Pacific College of Health and Science, 1 to 10 mg of hemp CBD per serving is considered a gentle dose, 10 to 30 mg of CBD constitutes a moderate dose, and 40 mg or higher of CBD can be considered a strong dose. (Internally, mindbodygreen categorizes less than 20 mg of CBD as gentle, 20 to 40 mg of hemp CBD as moderate, and 40+ mg of CBD as strong.)
Your cheat sheet to CBD dosage
As hemp CBD affects each person differently, we created a baseline reference for CBD potency at mindbodygreen:
Gentle: Less than 20 mg of hemp CBD per serving
Moderate: 20 to 39 mg of hemp CBD per serving
Strong: 40+ mg of hemp CBD per serving
How we picked the best CBD oils
- Third-party tested: Lab results and certificates of analysis or COAs prove (or disprove) that what a product's label claims is true. First, we made sure each brand's results and certificates were public, then we reviewed them for accuracy.
- Ingredients: Whether you're buying snacks or supplements, you should always review the product's ingredients list so you know exactly what you're putting into your body. We carefully scanned each product to ensure they were made with organic (when possible) and plant-derived ingredients and without synthetic ingredients, such as dyes, artificial flavorings, etc.
- Trust: Does the brand have a loyal following, with satisfied customers and excellent customer service? We took stock of each brand's reputation to verify their products were tried and true. Customer ratings, reviews, and social media following were all taken under consideration, as well as whether the brand had any known false health claims or BBB issues.
- Sourcing: Oftentimes, where a brand sources its hemp determines its quality and obviously, its traceability. But not only do you want to know where the cannabis plant is being grown, you also want to dig for details like where the farms are (is the crop grown in the U.S. or Europe—which is ideal—or in another location) and their growing policies.
CBD glossary
Endocannabinoid system (ECS): A cellular-level communication network involving cannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors, and specific enzymes. This unique, whole-body system is responsible for maintaining homeostasis across all the body’s organs and physiological functions, including but not limited to stress resilience, mood, sleep, appetite, inflammatory balance, and pain modulation.
Cannabinoids: Unique bioactive compounds that interact with your body’s endocannabinoid receptors. Your body creates cannabinoids (called endocannabinoids, like anandamide and 2-AG) and you can also ingest them (called phytocannabinoids, like CBD) from certain plants like Cannabis sativa, aka hemp.
Cannabidiol: The formal name for CBD, a unique phytocannabinoid compound found in the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa).
Full-spectrum hemp: Full-spectrum hemp has the “full spectrum” or array of the hemp plant’s cannabinoids—including CBD—as well as other beneficial native compounds, like terpenes, flavonoids, and fatty acids. This full array of intrinsic botanical bioactives is thought to facilitate the “entourage effect.” By law, full-spectrum hemp extracts in the U.S. can have up to 0.3% THC by dry weight (i.e., trace levels).
Broad-spectrum hemp: Broad-spectrum hemp retains many of the beneficial compounds found in full-spectrum hemp but filters out any THC. These extracts are sometimes referred to as “THC-free” products.
CBD isolate: CBD isolate products have a single cannabinoid: CBD. As a result, they won’t provide the “entourage effect” from the full array of hemp bioactives.
Terpenes: Unique aromatic bioactive phytonutrient compounds that give many plants their unique aroma, flavor, and beneficial biological properties.
Flavonoids: A large family of polyphenolic phytonutrients found in many plants (including hemp) that give particular flavors, colors, and health properties.
How CBD can benefit your health and longevity
When it comes to understanding the benefits of hemp CBD research still has a ways to go. Still, current studies around the cannabinoid are promising, as are a ton of anecdotal accounts from regular CBD users.
Early research suggests CBD could be a beneficial tool for combatting symptoms of anxiety,1 helping our bodies prepare for sleep2, and promoting an anti-inflammatory response3.*
As CBD research continues to develop, it could prove to be a useful, more natural way to take care of our bodies and minds.
However, until CBD is regulated by the FDA, it's important to do your due diligence and ensure you're getting a trustworthy, high-quality product. More on that below.
How to choose a CBD oil
As hemp CBD oil continues to become more mainstream, more formulas will, inevitably, hit the market. So, how do you decipher which product is right for you and, from there, how do you choose a good hemp CBD oil? There are a few factors to consider when browsing the various tinctures.
Hemp source: According to author and registered dietitian nutritionist Erin Kenney, M.S., R.D., HCP, NASM-CPT, your first order of business when shopping for hemp CBD should be researching where the brand sources its hemp, whether or not the products are third-party tested (and by whom), and what sort of ingredients are involved in its overall formulation.
Testing and transparency: Kenney tells mbg that if the company can provide a COA—verifying the quality of the oil and that it contains the legal amount of pesticides or heavy metals (i.e., tiny trace levels)—that's a great start. In fact, COA's are the only way to confirm what's actually inside a CBD oil, so you should make it a non-negotiable when shopping around. Some brands will share additional details about their extraction and manufacturing processes—the more the brand can (and will) tell you, the better.
Added ingredients: Sometimes CBD oils contain additional plant compounds or essential oils for added therapeutic benefits. However, you want to avoid ingredient lists that include added sugars, artificial flavors, or ingredients like polyethylene glycol (a compound that acts as a laxative).
Potency: The potency of a product should also be taken into consideration when purchasing hemp CBD oil. While hemp CBD is generally safe to use at the commercially available doses, Byars tells mbg it's important to note that what hemp CBD feels like to one person could cause a completely different experience for another. Ergo, Byars says hemp CBD users should "always start with a low dose and slowly [increase their dosage if needed]."
How long does it take for CBD to go into effect?
While the pharmacokinetic profile of compounds in the hemp plant is still an active area of research, it's estimated that buccal cell absorption (i.e., in your mouth, which is why many tinctures are taken under your tongue) can facilitate the most immediate impact, within 30 minutes or so.
Overall, it's thought to take anywhere from one to three hours for the body to fully absorb ingested hemp CBD oil. This is because the enzymes responsible for metabolizing substances like hemp CBD oil are also influenced by things like diet and genetics, which can slow down the process.
However, after it's metabolized in the liver, Byars tells mbg hemp CBD oil "rapidly penetrates into fat tissues and highly vascularized tissues," including the brain and muscle tissue.
Once fully metabolized, studies show hemp CBD oil can offer users a myriad of benefits.
Depending on why you're taking the supplement, studies show hemp CBD can help support a healthy inflammatory response4, alleviate feelings of stress, improve your mood, and even potentially boost libido.*
Does CBD oil expire?
CBD oil, like almost everything else you put in your body, has an expiration date—it's often printed on the bottom of the bottle or on the outside label.
Generally, a high-quality CBD oil should have a shelf-life of 1-2 years. But there are a few things you can do to ensure your oil stays fresh for as long as possible:
- Keep it tight: CBD oil typically comes in a medical-grade bottle with a dropper. It's best that you keep your oil in the original packaging and ensure that the top is screwed on tightly so excess oxygen can't enter the bottle and tamper with your tincture.
- Stow it away from light and heat: Most CBD oil comes in a dark bottle, and that's for a reason—oils are susceptible to light and heat. It's important to store your CBD oil in a cool, dark place (like your pantry or medicine cabinet) to keep it from heating up.
- Avoid cross contamination: Oil tinctures are intended to be taken under your tongue, which can get a little messy at times. Try to avoid touching your mouth directly onto the dropper before placing it back in the bottle—you don't want the bacteria from your mouth hanging out in the bottle!
Is CBD oil for me?
CBD comes in different forms, so how can you tell if hemp CBD oil in tincture form is for you over a hemp CBD gummy or capsule?
The short answer: It depends on the delivery format you prefer, benefits you're looking for (i.e., something to help support joints or sleep), how quickly you need results (hemp CBD oil tinctures taken under the tongue work faster than capsules or gummies), and personal preference (for example, some hemp CBD oils can have a potent plant taste, while hemp CBD gummies taste more like candy).
As far as benefits go, research shows hemp CBD can be beneficial for those evoking calm. Taking hemp CBD oil before bed can help promote relaxation by working with the human body's endocannabinoid system to restore balance in the body and mind.*
But while hemp CBD oil could potentially work for many adults, integrative health pharmacist Swathi Varanasi, Pharm.D., says there are a select few populations she would not recommend hemp CBD oil to.
These include anyone pregnant or breastfeeding, taking medications that could interact with the hemp cannabinoids or those with other specific medical concerns.
This list is not comprehensive, however, which is why Varanasi suggests speaking to an integrative health and/or cannabis specialist if you are interested in incorporating hemp CBD into your daily routine.
Frequently asked questions
Are there side effects to CBD oil?
Byars tells mbg that while there's always the risk of potential side effects when taking any hemp CBD product, they're generally mild and dose-dependent. When they do occur, the most common are sleepiness and drowsiness. Additional possible side effects may include changes in appetite, digestion, or mood. Hemp CBD may also interact with certain medications, so always discuss with a doctor before starting the plant supplement.
Is CBD oil legal?
Yes. Industrial U.S. hemp farming and hemp-derived products that contain less than 0.3% THC by dry weight were deemed legal under the 2018 Farm Bill.
How much CBD should I take?
How much hemp CBD a person should take will vary depending on factors like the potency of the product, past experiences with hemp CBD, the reason why they're taking it, etc. Rule of thumb: Always follow the brand's recommendations and start with the smallest dosage before working your way up and adjusting accordingly.
What’s the most effective type of CBD oil?
While people experience benefits from both broad- and full-spectrum CBD, most experts recommend full-spectrum because it provides the full range of compounds from the hemp plant. Researchers believe full-spectrum is your best bet for the entourage effect, a theory that suggests that multiple compounds working in harmony provide more therapeutic benefits than the individual compounds could on their own.
The takeaway
If you're considering incorporating hemp CBD into your daily wellness routine, you might want to consider trying hemp CBD oil.
These ingestible, plant-powered formulas can be wildly beneficial for the overall health of your body and mind.
Watch Next
Enjoy some of our favorite clips from classes
Enjoy some of our favorite clips from classes
What Is Meditation?
Mindfulness/Spirituality | Light Watkins
Box Breathing
Mindfulness/Spirituality | Gwen Dittmar
What Breathwork Can Address
Mindfulness/Spirituality | Gwen Dittmar
The 8 Limbs of Yoga - What is Asana?
Yoga | Caley Alyssa
Two Standing Postures to Open Up Tight Hips
Yoga | Caley Alyssa
How Plants Can Optimize Athletic Performance
Nutrition | Rich Roll
What to Eat Before a Workout
Nutrition | Rich Roll
How Ayurveda Helps Us Navigate Modern Life
Nutrition | Sahara Rose
Messages About Love & Relationships
Love & Relationships | Esther Perel
Love Languages
Love & Relationships | Esther Perel
What Is Meditation?
Box Breathing
What Breathwork Can Address
The 8 Limbs of Yoga - What is Asana?
Two Standing Postures to Open Up Tight Hips
How Plants Can Optimize Athletic Performance
What to Eat Before a Workout
How Ayurveda Helps Us Navigate Modern Life
Messages About Love & Relationships
Love Languages
Advertisement
Yes, There's A Longevity Vitamin (& People Over 40 Need To Prioritize It)
Molly Knudsen, M.S., RDN
Study Investigates How Fasting Impacts Sleep, Hormone Health & More
Gretchen Lidicker, M.S.
Yes, There's A Longevity Vitamin (& People Over 40 Need To Prioritize It)
Molly Knudsen, M.S., RDN
Study Investigates How Fasting Impacts Sleep, Hormone Health & More
Gretchen Lidicker, M.S.
Yes, There's A Longevity Vitamin (& People Over 40 Need To Prioritize It)
Molly Knudsen, M.S., RDN
Study Investigates How Fasting Impacts Sleep, Hormone Health & More
Gretchen Lidicker, M.S.
Yes, There's A Longevity Vitamin (& People Over 40 Need To Prioritize It)
Molly Knudsen, M.S., RDN
Study Investigates How Fasting Impacts Sleep, Hormone Health & More
Gretchen Lidicker, M.S.